|  ISSN: 2757-6116

Original article | Journal of Innovative Research in Teacher Education 2023, Vol. 4(1) 51-76

Exploring middle school students’ spatial skills self-efficacy

Alaattin Arıkan & Turhan Çetin

pp. 51 - 76   |  DOI: https://doi.org/10.29329/jirte.2023.531.4   |  Manu. Number: MANU-2210-06-0005.R1

Published online: March 19, 2023  |   Number of Views: 113  |  Number of Download: 399


Abstract

The purpose of this study was to explore middle school students’ spatial skills self-efficacy in relation to some variables. The sample consisted of 582 fifth-, sixth-, seventh-, and eighth-grade students in the spring term of the 2021-2022 academic year. The data was collected using the Spatial Skills Self-Efficacy Scale developed by the researchers. The study found that the middle school students had a moderate level of spatial skills self-efficacy on the overall scale and the intrinsic dynamic and extrinsic static subscales, while their level was high, although close to moderate, on the intrinsic static and extrinsic dynamic subscales. Additionally, middle school students’ spatial skills self-efficacy differed significantly according to gender, receiving preschool education, grade levels, the amount of time spent out of home, the frequency of going out of town, and the type of game that they most often playing. However, grade levels did not consistently lead to a significant increase in middle students’ spatial skills self-efficacy. Accordingly, it is proposed to provide intensive technology-supported training that goes beyond classical methods and practices, and to provide continuous spatial skills training throughout the entire learning cycle of students, starting from preschool education. This study is significant because it examined different dimensions of spatial skills in the same sample group and it explored, for the first time, the affective dimension of middle school students’ spatial skills using a valid and reliable scale.

Keywords: Spatial skills, spatial skill self-efficacy, secondary school, intrinsic-extrinsic, static-dynamic.


How to Cite this Article?

APA 6th edition
Arikan, A. & Cetin, T. (2023). Exploring middle school students’ spatial skills self-efficacy . Journal of Innovative Research in Teacher Education, 4(1), 51-76. doi: 10.29329/jirte.2023.531.4

Harvard
Arikan, A. and Cetin, T. (2023). Exploring middle school students’ spatial skills self-efficacy . Journal of Innovative Research in Teacher Education, 4(1), pp. 51-76.

Chicago 16th edition
Arikan, Alaattin and Turhan Cetin (2023). "Exploring middle school students’ spatial skills self-efficacy ". Journal of Innovative Research in Teacher Education 4 (1):51-76. doi:10.29329/jirte.2023.531.4.

References

    Ada, K. (2016).   Beyin temelli öğrenme kuramına yönelik tasarlanan eğitim ortamında 7. sınıf öğrencilerinin uzamsal becerilerinin incelenmesi [Investigation of 7th grade students' spatial thinking ability in a learning environment designed according to brain-based learning theory]. (Unpublished Master's Thesis). Recep Tayyip Erdoğan University, Rize. Retrieved from https://tez.yok.gov.tr/UlusalTezMerkezi/ Access Date: 08/09/2021

    Adak Özdemir, A. (2011). Mekânsal beceri eğitim programının okulöncesi dönem çocuklarının mekânsal becerilerine etkisi [The effect of spatial skill education program on spatial skills of pre-school children's]. (Doctoral dissertation). Marmara University, İstanbul. Retrieved from https://tez.yok.gov.tr/UlusalTezMerkezi/ Access Date: 22/07/2022

    Akengin, H., Bengiç, G., Çolak, K., & Taş, E. (2011). Students’ opinions about reaching levels of 6th grade social studies course attainments. Journal of Educational Sciences, (34), 5-23. Retrieved from https://dergipark.org.tr/en/pub/maruaebd/issue/376/2552 Access Date: 22/07/2022

    Aladağ, E., Arıkan, A., & Özenoğlu, H. (2021). Nature education: Outdoor learning of map literacy skills and reflective thinking skill towards problem-solving. Thinking Skills and Creativity, 40, 1-12. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.tsc.2021.100815

    Annett, M. (1992). Spatial ability in subgroups of left- and right-handers. British Journal of Psychology, 83(4), 493–515. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.2044-8295.1992.tb02455.x

    Arıkan, A., & Aladağ, E. (2019). The effect of orienteering course on map literacy skills of students at school of physical education and sports. International Journal of Geography and Geography Education (IGGE), 40, 124-138. https://doi.org/10.32003/iggei.555103

    Aydın Provincial Directorate of National Education. (2022). Ortaokullar derslik-öğrenci-öğretmen ve iletişim bilgiler. [Secondary schools classrooms-student-teacher and contact information]. Retrieved from http://aydin.meb.gov.tr/www/istatistikler/icerik/181 Access Date: 09/09/2021

    Ayvaz, M. (2019). Sosyal bilgiler öğretmen adaylarının 6. sınıf yeryüzünde yaşam ünitesine ilişkin teknolojik pedagojik alan bilgisiyle ilgili düzeylerinin incelenmesi [Investigating the level of social studies teacher candidates on technological and pedagogical content knowledge related to life on earth's surface unit in 6th grade]. (Unpublished master thesis). Trabzon University, Trabzon. Retrieved from https://tez.yok.gov.tr/UlusalTezMerkezi/  Access Date: 05/09/2021

    Baenninger, M., & Newcombe, N. (1989). The role of experience in spatial test performance: A meta-analysis. Sex Roles: A Journal of Research, 20(5-6), 327-344. https://doi.org/10.1007/BF00287729

    Baenninger, M., & Newcombe, N. (1995). Environmental input to the development of sex-related differences in spatial and mathematical ability. Learning and Individual Differences, 7(4), 363–379. https://doi.org/10.1016/1041-6080(95)90007-1

    Bandura, A. (1991). Social cognitive theory of self-regulation. Organizational Behavior and Human Decision Processes, 50(2), 248–287. https://doi.org/10.1016/0749-5978(91)90022-L

    Bandura, A. (1997). Self-efficacy: The exercise of control. New York: Freeman.

    Bannatyne, A. (2003). Multiple intelligences. Bannatyne reading, writing, spelling and language program. Retrieved from http://www.bannatynereadingprogram.com/BP12MULT.htm Access Date: 11/10/2021

    Ben Chaim, D., Lappan, G., & Houang, R. T. (1988). The effect of instruction on spatial visualization skills of middle school boys and girls. American Educational Research Journal, 25(1), 51-71. https://doi.org/10.3102/00028312025001051 

    Bishop, A. J. (1980). Spatial abilities and mathematics education-A review. Educational Studies in Mathematics11(3), 257-269.  https://doi.org/10.1007/BF00697739

    Black, A. (2005). Spatial ability and earth science conceptual understanding. Journal of Geoscience Education, 53(4), 402-414. https://doi.org/10.5408/1089-9995-53.4.402

    Borzekowski, D. L., Chale, M. L., & Cole, C. (2022). Spatial skills among young children in morogoro, tanzania: examining the effectiveness of a school-based ıntervention. International Journal of Early Childhood, 1-27. https://doi.org/10.1007/s13158-022-00317-y

    Büyüköztürk, Ş. (2020). Sosyal bilimler için veri analizi el kitabı: İstatistik, araştırma deseni SPSS uygulamaları ve yorum [Data analysis handbook for social sciences: Statistics, research design, SPSS applications and interpretation]. Ankara: Pegem.

    Carroll, J. B. (1993). Human cognitive abilities: A survey of factor-analytic studies. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.

    Chan, D. W. (2007). Gender differences in spatial ability: Relationship to spatial experience among Chinese gifted students in Hong Kong. Roeper Review, 29(4), 277-282. https://doi.org/10.1080/02783190709554423

    Chen, C. M., Lin, C. H., & Lou, Y. C. (2014). Developing spatial orientation and spatial memory with a treasure hunting game. Educational Technology & Society, 17(3), 79-92. Retrieved from https://citeseerx.ist.psu.edu/document?repid=rep1&type=pdf&doi=57df774a76104e3fba487d344ce2731930cc5bfa Access Date: 22/07/2022

    Cockburn, K. S. (1995). Effects of specific toy playing experiences on the spatial visualization skills of girls ages 4 & 6. (Doctoral dissertation). Washington State University, Pullman. Retrieved from https://www.proquest.com/ Access Date: 09/12/2021

    Cohen, L., Manion, L., & Morrison, K. (2000). Research methods in education. London: Routledge.

    Cooper, L. A., & Mumaw, R. J. (1985). Spatial aptitude. In R. F. Dillon (Ed.), Individual differences in cognition (pp. 67–94). New York: Academic Press.

    Coxon, S. V. (2012). Innovative allies: Spatial and creative abilities. Gifted Child Today, 35(4), 277-284. https://doi.org/10.1177/1076217512455480

    Çelikkaya, T. (2015). Student views regarding social studies instruction and education. Journal of Educational Science, 3(4), 30-46. Retrieved from https://dergipark.org.tr/en/pub/jedus/issue/16127/168718 Access Date: 24/09/2021

    Dearing, E., Casey, B. M., Ganley, C. M., Tillinger, M., Laski, E., & Montecillo, C. (2012). Young girls’ arithmetic and spatial skills: The distal and proximal roles of family socioeconomics and home learning experiences. Early Childhood Research Quarterly, 27(3), 458-470. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ecresq.2012.01.002

    Değirmenci, Y., Bulut, A., & Kuzey, M. (2021). Investigation of teachers’ opinions about space perception and direction skills of preschool students. Journal of Bayburt Education Faculty, 16(31), 21-38. https://doi.org/10.35675/befdergi.069069

    Di, X., & Zheng, X. (2022). A meta-analysis of the impact of virtual technologies on students’ spatial ability. Educational Technology Research and Development, 70(1), 73-98. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11423-022-10082-3

    Ecuyer Dab, I., & Robert, M. (2004). Have sex differences in spatial ability evolved from male competition for mating and female concern for survival?. Cognition, 91(3), 221-257. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cognition.2003.09.007

    Ehrlich, S. B., Levine, S. C., & Goldin Meadow, S. (2006). The importance of gesture in children's spatial reasoning. Developmental Psychology, 42(6), 1259-1268. https://doi.org/10.1037/0012-1649.42.6.1259  

    Erol, H. (2017). An evaluation on secondary school students’ map literacy skills. Anadolu Journal of Educational Sciences International, 7(3), 425-457. https://doi.org/10.18039/ajesi.371633

    Ertekin, P. (2017). Üstün yetenekli ortaokul öğrencilerinin uzamsal akıl yürütme becerilerinin astronomi konularına yönelik kavramsal anlayışları ve akademik başarıları ile ilişkisinin incelenmesi [Investigating the relationship of middle school gifted students' spatial reasoning skills with their conceptual understanding of astronomy subjects and academic achievement]. (Doctoral dissertation). İnönü University, Malatya. Retrieved from https://tez.yok.gov.tr/UlusalTezMerkezi/ Access Date: 24/03/2022

    Ertuğrul, Z. (2008). İlköğretim 6. sınıf öğrencilerinin harita ve küre kullanım becerilerinin tespiti [The determination of 6th grade primary school students? Map and globe usage skills]. (Unpublished master thesis). Gazi University, Ankara. Retrieved from https://tez.yok.gov.tr/UlusalTezMerkezi/   Access Date: 05/02/2020

    Ferrini-Mundy, J. (1987). Spatial training for calculus students: Sex differences in achievement and in visualization ability. Journal for Research in Mathematics Education, 18(2), 126-140. https://doi.org/10.2307/749247 

    Fesliyen, Z., Şanlı, C., & Pınar, A. (2019). Ortaöğretim öğrencilerinin harita beceri düzeylerine yönelik bir eylem araştirmasi: kulu örneği [An action research on map reading skill levels of secondary school students: A Kulu sample]. Future Visions Journal, 3(3), 9-23. https://doi.org/10.29345/futvis.91

    Frick, A., & Newcombe, N. S. (2012). Getting the big picture: Development of spatial scaling abilities. Cognitive Development, 27(3), 270-282. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cogdev.2012.05.004

    Frick, A., & Wang, S. (2010). Round and round she goes: Efects of hands-on training on mental rotation in 13-to 16-month-olds. [Poster presentation]. the 17th Biennial International Conference on Infant Studies, Baltimore, United States

    Frick, A., & Wang, S. H. (2014). Mental spatial transformations in 14‐and 16‐month‐old infants: Effects of action and observational experience. Child development, 85(1), 278-293. https://doi.org/10.1111/cdev.12116

    Gagnier, K., Holochwost, S., & Fisher, K. (2021). Spatial thinking in science, technology, engineering, and mathematics: Elementary teachers' beliefs, perceptions, and self‐efficacy. Journal of Research in Science Teaching, 59(1), 95-126 https://doi.org/10.1002/tea.21722

    Galton, F. (1883). Inquiries into human faculty and its development. London: Macmillan.

    Garcia, N. L., Dick, A., & Pruden, S. M. (2021, August 31, preprint). Contributions of Executive Function to Spatial Thinking in Preschool Children. https://doi.org/10.31234/osf.io/dcjx5

    Geer, E. A. (2019). The development and construct validation of the revised spatial anxiety scale. (Doctoral dissertation). Florida State University, Tallahassee. Retrieved from https://www.proquest.com/ Access Date: 05/11/2021

    George, D., & Mallery, M. (2010). SPSS for Windows step by step: A simple guide and reference. Boston: Pearson

    Gilligan-Lee, K. A., Bradbury, A., Bradley, C., Farran, E. K., Van Herwegen, J., Wyse, D., & Outhwaite, L. A. (2022, March 14, preprint). Spatial thinking in practice: A snapshot of teacher’s spatial activity use in the early years’ classroom. https://doi.org/10.31234/osf.io/zqc2x

    Gilligan-Lee, K. A., Hodgkiss, A., Thomas, M. S., Patel, P. K., & Farran, E. K. (2021). Aged-based differences in spatial language skills from 6 to 10 years: Relations with spatial and mathematics skills. Learning and instruction, 73, 101417. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.learninstruc.2020.101417

    Ginn, S. R., & Pickens, S. J. (2005). Relationships between spatial activities and scores on the mental rotation test as a function of sex. Perceptual and Motor Skills, 100(3), 877–881. https://doi.org/10.2466/PMS.100.3.877-881

    Gönülaçar, H., & Öztürk, M. (2019). Ortaokul öğrencilerinin mekânsal düşünme becerileri [Spatial thinking skills of secondary school students]. Milli Eğitim Dergisi, 49(227), 217-243. Retrieved from https://dergipark.org.tr/tr/pub/milliegitim/issue/56322/630596 Access Date: 24/09/2021

    Grossman, H., & Grossman, S. (1994). Gender issues in education. Boston: Allyn & Bacon.

    Guay, R. B., & McDaniel, E. D. (1977). The relationship between mathematics achievement and spatial abilities among elementary school children. Journal for Research in Mathematics Education, 8(3), 211-215. https://doi.org/10.2307/748522 

    Hair, J. F., Black, W. C., Babin, B. J., Anderson, R. E., & Tatham, R. L. (2013). Multivariate data analysis: London: Pearson Education Limited.

    Harris, D. (2021). Spatial ability, skills, reasoning or thinking: What does it mean for mathematics? [Paper presentation]. 43rd Annual Conference of the Mathematics Education Research Group of Australasia, Singapore, Australasia.

    Hegarty, M., Montello, D. R., Richardson, A. E., Ishikawa, T., & Lovelace, K. (2006). Spatial abilities at different scales: Individual differences in aptitude-test performance and spatial-layout learning. Intelligence, 34(2), 151–176. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.intell.2005.09.005

    Hegarty, M., & Waller, D. A. (2005). Individual differences in spatial abilities. In P. Shah & A. Miyake (Eds.), The Cambridge handbook of visuospatial thinking (pp. 121-169). Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.

    Hodgkiss, A., Gilligan-Lee, K. A., Thomas, M. S., Tolmie, A. K., & Farran, E. K. (2021). The developmental trajectories of spatial skills in middle childhood. British Journal of Developmental Psychology, 39(4), 566-583. https://doi.org/10.1111/bjdp.12380

    Iachini, T., Ruggiero, G., Conson, M., & Trojano, L. (2009). Lateralization of egocentric and allocentric spatial processing after parietal brain lesions. Brain and Cognition, 69(3), 514–520. https://doi.org/10.1016/J.BANDC.2008.11.001

    İrioğlu, Z., & Ertekin, E. (2012). İlköğretim ikinci kademe öğrencilerinin zihinsel döndürme becerilerinin bazı değişkenler açısından incelenmesi [Examining the mental rotation skills of elementary school second level students in terms of some variables]. Journal of Educational and Instructional Studies in the World, 2(1), 75-81. Retrieved from http://www.ajindex.com/dosyalar/makale/acarindex-1423906127.pdf Access Date: 24/09/2021

    Janssen, A. B., & Geiser, C. (2010). On the relationship between solution strategies in two mental rotation tasks. Learning and Individual Differences, 20(5), 473–478. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.lindif.2010.03.002

    Joh, A. S. (2016). Training effects and sex difference in preschoolers’ spatial reasoning ability. Developmental    Psychobiology,  58(7),    896–908. https://doi.org/10.1002/dev.21445 

    Jung, S., Meinhardt, A., Braeuning, D., Roesch, S., Cornu, V., Pazouki, T., Schiltz, C., Lonnemann, J., & Moeller, K. (2020). Hierarchical development of early visual-spatial abilities–a taxonomy based assessment using the maGrid app. Frontiers in Psychology, 11, 1-14. https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2020.00871  

    Kara, H., Sezer, A., & Şanlı, C. (2018). Use of maps in secondary school geography textbooks. International Journal of Geography and Geography Education, 38, 20-39. https://doi.org/10.32003/iggei.425182

    Karakuş, U., & Karaman, B. (2019). Sosyal bilgiler dersinde coğrafya konularının öğretimine ilişkin öğretmen görüşleri. [Teachers' opinions on teaching geography subjects in social studies course]. [Congress presentation]. II. International Congress on Geographical Education, Eskişehir, Turkey.

    Kelley, T. L. (1928). Crossroads in the mind of man. Stanford: Stanford University Press.

    Kimura, D. (1999). Sex and cognition. Cambridge: The MIT Press.

    Kösa, T., & Kalay, H. (2018). Evaluation of the learning environment designed for developing 7th grade students’ spatial orientation skills.  Kastamonu Education Journal, 26(1), 83-92. https://doi.org/10.24106/kefdergi.348100

    Kuzey, M., & Değirmenci, Y. (2020). Examination of the metaphors of classroom and social sciences teacher candidates related to the concept of direction. Review of International Geographical Education (RIGEO), 10(1), Special Issue, 207-225. https://doi.org/10.33403/rigeo.641614

    Lauer, J. E., & Lourenco, S. F. (2016). Spatial processing in infancy predicts both spatial and mathematical aptitude in childhood. Psychological science, 27(10), 1291-1298. https://doi.org/10.1177/0956797616655977

    Lawshe, C. H. (1975). A quantitative approach to content validity. Personnel Psychology, 28(4), 563–575. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1744-6570.1975.tb01393.x

    Lawton, C. A., & Morrin, K. A. (1999). Gender differences in pointing accuracy in computer-simulated 3D mazes. Sex Roles: A Journal of Research, 40(1-2), 73–92. https://doi.org/10.1023/A:1018830401088 

    Linn, M. C., & Petersen, A. C. (1985). Emergence and characterization of sex differences in spatial ability: A meta-analysis. Child Development, 56(6), 1479–1498. https://doi.org/10.2307/1130467  

    Lohman, D. F. (1979). Spatial ability: Review and re-analysis of the correlational literature. Stanford University Technical Report No. 8. Retrieved from https://apps.dtic.mil/sti/pdfs/ADA075972.pdf Access Date: 24/09/2021

    Lohman, D. F. (1988). Spatial abilities as traits, processes, and knowledge. In R. J. Sternberg (Ed.), Advances in the psychology of human intelligence (pp. 181- 248). Hillside, NJ: Erlbaum Associates Publishers.

    Maddux, J. E. (1995). Self-efficacy Theory: An introduction. In J. E. Maddux (Ed.), Self-efficacy, adaptation, and adjustment: theory, research, and application (pp.3-33). Boston: Plenum Press.

    Mathewson, J. H. (1999). Visual‐spatial thinking: An aspect of science overlooked by educators. Science education, 83(1), 33-54. https://doi.org/10.1002/(SICI)1098-237X(199901)83:1<33::AID-SCE2>3.0.CO;2-Z

    Mazman, G. Z., & Altun, A. (2013). Individual differences in spatial orientation performances: an eye tracking study. World Journal on Educational Technology, 5(2), 266-280. Retrieved from http://archives.un-pub.eu/index.php/wjet/article/view/2615/pdf_186 Access Date: 24/09/2021

    McCoun, P. K. C. (1993). Gender differences in attitudes, spatial visualization ability, and learning styles of remedial mathematics students. (Doctoral dissertation). Texas Tech University, Lubbock. Retrieved from https://www.proquest.com/ Access Date: 05/11/2021

    McGee, M. G. (1979). Human spatial abilities: Psychometric studies and environmental, genetic, hormonal, and neurological influences. Psychological Bulletin, 86(5), 889–918. https://doi.org/10.1037/0033-2909.86.5.889  

    McLaughlin, J. A., & Bailey, J. M. (2022). Students need more practice with spatial thinking in geoscience education: a systematic review of the literature. Studies in Science Education, 1-58. https://doi.org/10.1080/03057267.2022.2029305

    Mix, K. S., Hambrick, D. Z., Satyam, V. R., Burgoyne, A. P., & Levine, S. C. (2018). The latent structure of spatial skill: A test of the 2 × 2 typology. Cognition, 180, 268–278. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cognition.2018.07.012

    Mohler, J. L. (2008). A review of spatial ability research. Engineering Design Graphics Journal, 72 (3), 19-30. Retrieved from https://core.ac.uk/download/pdf/229786602.pdf  Access Date: 20/10/2021

    Morris, S. W. (2018). The effect of gender on spatial ability and spatial reasoning among students in grades 2-8. (Doctoral dissertation).  Liberty University, Lynchburg. Retrieved from https://www.proquest.com/ Access Date: 05/11/2021

    Mulligan, J., Woolcott, G., Mitchelmore, M., & Davis, B. (2018). Connecting mathematics learning through spatial reasoning. Mathematics Education Research Journal, 30(1), 77-87. https://doi.org/10.1007/s13394-017-0210-x

    National Research Council. (2006). Learning to think spatially. Washington: The National Academies Press.

    Newcombe, N. S., & Huttenlocher, J. (2006). Development of spatial cognition. In D. Kuhn, R. S. Siegler, W. Damon, & R. M. Lerner (Eds.), Handbook of child psychology: Cognition, perception, and language (pp. 734–776). Hoboken, NJ: John Wiley & Sons Inc.

    Okagaki, L., & Frensch, P. A. (1994). Effects of video game playing on measures of spatial performance: Gender effects in late adolescence. Journal of Applied Developmental Psychology, 15(1), 33–58. https://doi.org/10.1016/0193-3973(94)90005-1

    Okamoto, Y., Kotsopoulos, D., McGarvey, L., & Hallowell, D. (2015). The development of spatial reasoning in young children. In B. Davis & Spatial Reasoning Study Group (Eds.), Spatial reasoning in the early years (pp. 15-28). New York: Routledge.

    Olkun, S., & Altun, A. (2003). İlköğretim öğrencilerinin bilgisayar deneyimleri ile uzamsal düşünme ve geometri başarıları arasındaki ilişki [The relationship between elementary school students' computer experiences and their spatial thinking and geometry achievement]. The Turkish Online Journal of Educational Technology, 2(4), 86-91. Retrieved from http://www.tojet.net/articles/v2i4/2413.pdf Access Date: 03/01/2022

    Özyaprak, M. (2012). A comparison of spatial-analytical ability levels of gifted and average students. Turkish Journal of Giftedness and Education, 2(2), 137-153. Retrieved from http://www.tuzed.org/publications/cilt2/sayi2/2012_2_2_ozyaprak.pdf Access Date: 04/02/2022

    Phunlapthawee, K. (2000). An analysis of constructures for spatial and error pattern scores associated with the spatial ability and related gender differences of twelfth grade students in Thailand. (Doctoral dissertation).  Ohio State University, Columbus. Retrieved from https://www.proquest.com/ Access Date: 06/11/2021

    Piaget, J., & Inhelder, B. (1956). The child's conception of space. New York: Norton.

    Plumert, J. M., & Spencer, J. P. (2007). Emerging spatial mind. Oxford, UK: Oxford University Press.

    Pollman, M. J. (2010). Blocks and beyond: Strengthening early math and science skills through spatial learning. Baltimore, MD: Paul Brookes Publishing Co.

    Ramirez, G., Gunderson, E. A., Levine, S. C., & Beilock, S. L. (2012). Spatial anxiety relates to spatial abilities as a function of working memory in children. The Quarterly Journal of Experimental Psychology, 65(3), 474–487. https://doi.org/10.1080/17470218.2011.616214

    Rule, A. C. (2016). Spatial thinking skills and STEM connections: How does this issue address them?. Journal of STEM Arts, Crafts, and Constructions, 1(2), 1-8. Retrieved from https://scholarworks.uni.edu/cgi/viewcontent.cgi?referer=&httpsredir=1&article=1007&context=journal-stem-arts Access Date: 14/01/2022

    Schug, M. G. (2016). Factors in the development of spatial cognition in boys and girls. Boyhood Studies, 9(2), 44–55. https://doi.org/10.3167/bhs.2016.090204

    Seng, S., & Chan, B. (2000). Spatial ability and mathematical performance: gender differences ın an elementary school. National Institude of Education. 18, 1-12. Retrieved from https://files.eric.ed.gov/fulltext/ED438937.pdf Access Date: 24/05/2022 

    Septia, T., Prahmana, R. C. I., Pebrianto, P., & Wahyu, R. (2018). Improving students spatial reasoning with course lab. Journal on Mathematics Education, 9(2), 327-336. https://doi.org/10.22342/jme.9.2.3462.327-336

    Shavalier, M. E. (1999). A study of the effects of structured activities using CAD-Like software on the spatial ability of fourth, fifth and sixth grade students. (Doctoral dissertation).  University of Wyoming, Laramie. Retrieved from https://www.proquest.com/ Access Date: 06/11/2021

    Sherman, J. (1978). Sex-related cognitive differences: An essay on theory and evidence. Springfield, IL: Charles C. Thomas.

    Silverman, I., Choi, J., Mackewn, A., Fisher, M., Moro, J., & Olshansky, E. (2000). Evolved mechanisms underlying wayfindmg: Further studies on the hunter-gatherer theory of spatial sex differences. Evolution and Human Behavior, 21(3), 201-213. https://doi.org/10.1016/S1090-5138(00)00036-2

    Silverman, I., & Eals, M. (1992). Sex differences in spatial abilities: Evolutionary theory and data. In J. H. Barkow, L. Cosmides, & J. Tooby (Eds.), The adapted mind (pp. 533-549). Oxford, UK: Oxford University Press.

    Soluki, S., Yazdani, S., Arjmandnia, A. A., Fathabadi, J., Hassanzadeh, S., & Nejati, V. (2021). Comprehensive assessment of spatial ability in children: A computerized tasks battery. Advances in Cognitive Psychology, 17(1), 38–48. https://doi.org/10.5709/acp-0315-0

    Spearman, C. (1927). The measurement of intelligence. Nature, 120(3025), 577-578. https://doi.org/10.1038/120577a0

    Şanlı, C. (2020). The analysis of spatial thinking skills in the questions included within social sciences coursebooks. International Journal of Geography and Geography Education (IGGE), 42, 118-132. https://doi.org/10.32003/igge.724028

    Tabachnick, B. G., & Fidell, L. S. (2013). Using multivariate statistics. Boston, MA: Pearson.

    Tekin, A. T. (2007). Dokuzuncu ve on birinci sınıf öğrencilerinin zihinde döndürme ve uzamsal görselleştirme yeteneklerinin karşılaştırmalı olarak incelenmesi [Comparative investigation of nineth and eleventh grade students? mental rotation and spatial visualization abilities]. (Unpublished master thesis). Ankara University, Ankara. Retrieved from https://tez.yok.gov.tr/UlusalTezMerkezi/  Access Date: 05/02/2020

    Terlecki, M. S., & Newcombe, N. S. (2005). How important is the digital divide? The relation of computer and videogame usage to gender differences in mental rotation ability. Sex Roles, 53, 433-441. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11199-005-6765-0

    Thalheimer, W., & Cook, S. (2002). How to calculate effect size from published research: a simplified methodology. Retrieved from

     http://www.bwgriffin.com/gsu/courses/edur9131/content/Effect_Sizes_pdf5.pdf Access Date: 08/07/2022

    Thorndike, E. L. (1921). On the organization of the intellect. Psychological Review, 28, 141-151. https://doi.org/10.1037/h0070821

    Thurstone, L. L. (1938). Primary Mental Abilities, Psychometric Monographs, 1-121. Retrieved from https://psycnet.apa.org/record/1938-03756-001 Access Date: 24/05/2022

    Turğut, M. (2007). İlköğretim II. kademede öğrencilerin uzamsal yeteneklerinin incelenmesi [Investigation of 6, 7 and 8 grade students' spatial ability]. (Unpublished master thesis). Dokuz Eylül University, İzmir. Retrieved from https://tez.yok.gov.tr/UlusalTezMerkezi/ Access Date: 01/03/2022 

    Tüker, Ç. (2017). Tasarım öğrencilerinin uzamsal becerilerinin eğitsel oyun tabanlı bilgisayar yazılımları ile geliştirilmesi Proje No: 2017 / 26 [Improving design students' spatial skills with educational game-based computer software Project No: 2017 / 26]. Retrieved from https://scholar.google.com.tr/scholar?q=Tasarım+öğrencilerinin+uzamsal+becerilerinin+eğitsel+oyun+tabanlı+bilgisayar+yazılımları+ile+geliştirilmesi&hl=tr&as_sdt=0&as_vis=1&oi=scholart Access Date: 01/03/2022 

    Uttal, D. H., Meadow, N. G., Tipton, E., Hand, L. L., Alden, A. R., Warren, C., & Newcombe, N. S. (2013). The malleability of spatial skills: A meta-analysis of training studies. Psychological Bulletin, 139(2), 352–402. https://doi.org/10.1037/a0028446

    Uysal, A., & Değirmenci, Y. (2021). Coğrafya eğitiminde konum tabanlı mobil oyunlar ve kullanımı [Location-based mobile games and their use in geography education]. In E. Artvinli and Y. Değirmenci, (eds.). Coğrafya eğitiminde yeni yaklaşımlar [New approaches in geography education]. Ankara: Nobel.

    Uzun, Z. B. (2019). Ortaokul öğrencilerinin geometrik düşünme düzeyleri, uzamsal yetenekleri ve geometriye yönelik tutumları [Middle school students geometric thinking levels, spatial abilities and attitudes towards geometry]. (Unpublished master thesis). Balıkesir University, Balıkesir. Retrieved from https://tez.yok.gov.tr/UlusalTezMerkezi/  Access Date: 05/02/2022  

    Üzümcü, O. N. (2007). İlköğretim 6. sınıf sosyal bilgiler dersinde harita okuma becerisinin aktif öğrenme yöntemiyle kazandırılması [The acquisition of the ability of reading map using the technic of active learning in the 6th grade of primary school]. (Unpublished master thesis). Gazi University, Ankara. Retrieved from https://tez.yok.gov.tr/UlusalTezMerkezi/ Access Date: 05/02/2022 

    Xie, F., Zhang, L., Chen, X., & Xin, Z. (2020). Is spatial ability related to mathematical ability: A meta-analysis. Educational Psychology Review, 32(1), 113–155. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10648-019-09496-y

    Verdine, B. N., Golinkoff, R. M., Hirsh‐Pasek, K., Newcombe, N. S., Filipowicz, A. T., & Chang, A. (2014). Deconstructing building blocks: Preschoolers' spatial assembly performance relates to early mathematical skills. Child Development,85(3), 1062–1076. https://doi.org/10.1111/cdev.12165  

    Voyer, D., Nolan, C., & Voyer, S. (2000). The relation between experience and spatial performance in men and women. Sex Roles: A Journal of Research, 43(11-12), 891–915. https://doi.org/10.1023/A:1011041006679

    Walker, J. T., Krasnoff, A. G., & Peaco, D. (1981). Visual spatial perception in adolescents and their parents: The X-linked recessive hypothesis. Behavior Genetics, 11403–413. https://doi.org/10.1007/BF01070823

    Webley, P. (1981). Sex differences in home range and cognitive maps in eight-year old children. Journal of Environmental Psychology, 1(4), 293–302. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0272-4944(81)80027-8

    Xiao, N., & Zhang, X. (2021). Interest in spatial activities predicts young children’s spatial ability development: A two-year longitudinal study. Contemporary Educational Psychology64,1-9.  https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cedpsych.2021.101943

    Yılmaz, H. B. (2009). On the development and measurement of spatial Ability. International Electronic Journal of Elementary Education, 1(2), 83-96. Retrieved from https://www.iejee.com/index.php/IEJEE/article/view/279 Access Date: 24/05/2022

    Yıldız, B. (2009). Üç-boyutlu sanal ortam ve somut materyal kullanımının uzamsal görselleştirme ve zihinsel döndürme becerilerine etkileri [The effects of using three-dimensional virtual environments and concrete manipulatives on spatial visualisation and mental rotation abilities]. (Unpublished master thesis). Hacettepe University, Ankara. Retrieved from https://tez.yok.gov.tr/UlusalTezMerkezi/ Access Date: 01/03/2022 

    Yurt, E. (2014). The predictive power of self-efficacy sources for mathematics achievement. Education and Science, 39(176), 159-169. http://dx.doi.org/10.15390/EB.2014.3443

    Zhang, X., Rasanen, P., Koponen, T., Aunola, K., Lerkkanen, M. K., & Nurmi, J. E. (2020). Early cognitive precursors of children’s mathematics learning disability and persistent low achievement: A 5-year longitudinal study. Child Development, 91, 7–27. https://doi.org/10.1111/cdev.13123